Mostrando postagens com marcador mitologia. Mostrar todas as postagens
Mostrando postagens com marcador mitologia. Mostrar todas as postagens

segunda-feira, 1 de julho de 2024

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Os fósseis de dinossauros foram a inspiração para o mito do grifo?

Um novo estudo desafia a teoria de que fósseis de dinossauros inspiraram a lenda da criatura mitológica, o grifo.

Diz-se que os grifos têm cabeça e asas de ave de rapina e corpo de leão. Eles estão entre as criaturas mitológicas mais antigas, com a primeira menção aos grifos na arte egípcia e do Oriente Médio há mais de 5.000 anos. A criatura foi popularizada na Grécia Antiga durante o século VIII aC.

Tal como outras criaturas mitológicas – como os dragões – foi sugerido que os povos antigos foram inspirados a considerar a sua existência devido à descoberta de ossos de dinossauros.

Em 1989, a folclorista Addrienne Mayor escreveu o primeiro artigo sugerindo uma ligação entre grifos e fósseis de dinossauros. Isto foi seguido por seu livro de 2000, The First Fossil Hunters .

Comparisons between the skeleton of Protoceratops and ancient griffin art
Comparações entre o esqueleto do Protoceratops e a antiga arte do grifo. Crédito: Dr. Mark Witton.

A teoria de Mayor inclui a ideia de que o 'dino inspo' para o grifo é o dinossauro com chifres Protoceratops de três chifres – um pequeno parente da Mongólia e da China do Triceratops .

A história continua: Antigos nômades descobriram Protoceratops enquanto prospectavam ouro. Contos de ossos pré-históricos se espalharam para o sudoeste nas rotas comerciais, inspirando a lenda do grifo.

Como os grifos, o Protoceratops andava sobre 4 patas e tinha bico. Pode-se argumentar que o crânio com babados do dinossauro poderia ter sido interpretado como asas.

Mas um novo estudo publicado na Interdisciplinary Science Reviews abre falhas nesta teoria.

Por um lado, os ossos do Protoceratops são encontrados a centenas de quilômetros de antigos locais de ouro.

“De modo geral, apenas uma fração do esqueleto de um dinossauro em erosão será visível a olho nu, passando despercebida por todos, exceto pelos caçadores de fósseis de olhos aguçados”, diz o autor Mark Witton, paleontólogo da Universidade de Portsmouth, no Reino Unido.

Descobrir fósseis de dinossauros “não é uma tarefa fácil”, segundo Witton, mesmo com ferramentas e técnicas modernas. Em vez disso, os cientistas dizem que é provável uma explicação muito mais simples.

“Tudo sobre as origens dos grifos é consistente com a sua interpretação tradicional como bestas imaginárias, assim como a sua aparência é inteiramente explicada pelo facto de serem quimeras de grandes felinos e aves de rapina”, diz Witton. “Invocar um papel para os dinossauros na tradição dos grifos, especialmente espécies de terras distantes como o Protoceratops , não apenas introduz complexidade e inconsistências desnecessárias em suas origens, mas também depende de interpretações e propostas que não resistem ao escrutínio.”

“Nem todas as criaturas mitológicas exigem explicações através de fósseis. Alguns dos geomitos mais populares – protocerátopos e grifos, fósseis de elefantes e ciclopes, e dragões e dinossauros – não têm base evidencial e são inteiramente especulativos.”

Os autores sublinham que há evidências da importância cultural dos fósseis de dinossauros na antiga mitologia humana – conhecida como geomitos.

“Não há nada de intrinsecamente errado com a ideia de que os povos antigos encontraram ossos de dinossauros e os incorporaram na sua mitologia, mas precisamos de enraizar tais propostas em realidades da história, da geografia e da paleontologia. Caso contrário, são apenas especulações”, diz o coautor Richard Hing, também da Universidade de Portsmouth.

segunda-feira, 15 de abril de 2019

Dragons: A Brief History of the Mythical, Fire-Breathing Beasts


Dragons: A Brief History of the Mythical, Fire-Breathing Beasts
One of Daenerys' dragons in HBO's "Game of Thrones."
Credit: HBO
Os dragões estão entre os mais populares e duradouros das criaturas mitológicas do mundo.
Os contos do dragão são conhecidos em muitas culturas, das Américas à Europa e da Índia à China. Eles têm uma história longa e rica em muitas formas e continuam a povoar nossos livros, filmes e programas de televisão.

Não está claro quando ou onde as primeiras histórias de dragões emergiram, mas as enormes serpentes voadoras foram descritas pelo menos desde a idade dos antigos gregos e sumérios. Para grande parte da história, os dragões eram considerados como qualquer outro animal mítico: às vezes útil e protetor, outras vezes prejudicial e perigoso.[Top 10 Beasts and Dragons: How Reality Made Myth]

Isso mudou quando o cristianismo se espalhou pelo mundo; dragões assumiram uma interpretação decididamente sinistra e passaram a representar Satanás. Nos tempos medievais, a maioria das pessoas que ouviram falar de dragões as conhecia da Bíblia, e é provável que a maioria dos cristãos da época acreditasse na existência literal de dragões. Afinal de contas, o Leviatã - o enorme monstro descrito em detalhes no Livro de Jó, capítulo 41 - soa como um dragão:

"Suas costas têm fileiras de escudos firmemente selados; cada um está tão perto do próximo que nenhum ar pode passar. Eles estão unidos um ao outro; eles se agarram e não podem se separar. Seu ronco lança flashes de luz; os olhos são como os raios da aurora. Chamas escorrem de sua boca, faíscas de fogo saem. Fumaça jorra de suas narinas como de uma panela fervente sobre canas queimadas. Sua respiração incendeia brasas e chamas saem de sua boca. "
 
A crença nos dragões foi baseada não apenas em lendas, mas também em evidências concretas, ou pelo menos é o que as pessoas pensavam, há muito tempo. Por milênios, ninguém sabia o que fazer com os ossos gigantes que ocasionalmente eram descobertos em todo o mundo, e os dragões pareciam uma escolha lógica para pessoas que não tinham conhecimento de dinossauros.
A Chinese dragon statue at Nakornsawan Park in Thailand.

A Chinese dragon statue at Nakornsawan Park in Thailand.
Credit: GOLFX / Shutterstock
Though most people can easily picture a dragon, people's ideas and descriptions of dragons vary dramatically. Some dragons have wings; others don't. Some dragons can speak or breathe fire; others can't. Some are only a few feet long; others span miles. Some dragons live in palaces under the ocean, while others can only be found in caves and inside mountains.

As folklorist Carol Rose discusses in her book "Giants, Monsters, & Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend, and Myth" (Norton, 2001), dragons "have composite features from many other beasts, such as the head of an elephant in India, that of a lion or bird of prey in the Middle East, or numerous heads of reptiles such as serpents. Their body color may range from green, red, and black to unusually yellow, blue or white dragons."

Zoologist Karl Shuker describes a wide variety of dragons in his book "Dragons: A Natural History" (Simon & Schuster, 1995), including giant snakes, hydras, gargoyles and dragon-gods, and the more obscure variants such as basilisks, wyverns and cockatrices. At its root, the is a chameleon — its features adapting to the cultural and literary expectations of the era.

Dragons continue to capture the public's imagination in fantasy books and films, appearing in everything from the kid-friendly 2010 film "How to Train Your Dragon," to the more adult-oriented "Game of Thrones" books and TV series and "The Hobbit" book and movies. The popular role-playing game Advanced Dungeons and Dragons describes more than a dozen varieties of dragons, each with unique personalities, powers and other characteristics (Black dragons, for example, are fond of eels — who knew?).
St. George and the Dragon, by Paolo Uccello, 1470.

St. George and the Dragon, by Paolo Uccello, 1470.
A palavra "dragão" vem da antiga palavra grega "draconta", que significa "vigiar", sugerindo que os guardas da besta guardam tesouros, como montanhas de moedas de ouro ou pedras preciosas. Mas isso não faz sentido porque uma criatura tão poderosa quanto um dragão certamente não precisa pagar por nada, certo? É provavelmente mais um tesouro simbólico, não para o dragão açambarcador, mas sim uma recompensa para os bravos cavaleiros que vencem a fera má.

 Os dragões são um dos poucos monstros lançados na mitologia principalmente como um poderoso e temível oponente a ser morto. Eles simplesmente não existem por si mesmos; elas existem em grande parte como uma barreira para aventureiros audaciosos. Outros animais míticos, como trolls, elfos e fadas, interagem com as pessoas (às vezes de forma maliciosa, às vezes prestativa), mas seu papel principal não é como um combatente.

A igreja cristã criou lendas de santos justos e piedosos lutando e vencendo Satanás na forma de dragões. O mais célebre destes foi São Jorge, o Caçador de Dragões, que nas lendas se depara com uma cidade ameaçada por um terrível dragão. Ele resgata uma bela donzela, protege-se com o sinal da cruz e mata a fera. Os cidadãos da cidade, impressionados com a façanha de fé e bravura de São Jorge, imediatamente se converteram ao cristianismo.

Vanquishing a dragon was not only an important career opportunity for any ambitious saint, knight or hobbit, but according to legend it was also a way to raise armies. As Michael Page and Robert Ingpen note in their "Encyclopedia of Things That Never Were" (Viking Penguin, 1987), "The use of dragon's teeth provides a simple method of expanding the armed forces of any country. It was first practiced by Cadmus, King of Thebes. First, prepare a piece of ground as though for sowing grain. Next, catch and kill any convenient dragon and draw all its teeth. Sow these in the furrows you have prepared, cover lightly, and stand well away." Easy, peasy, right?

Next, veteran warriors "clad in bronze armor and armed with swords and shields ... emerge rapidly from the earth and stand in ranks according to the way in which the dragon's teeth were sown." Apparently these draconis dentata soldiers are a quarrelsome lot and will turn on each other lacking a ready enemy, so if you plan to do this, be sure your adversaries are nearby.
Scholars believe that the fire-breathing element of dragons came from medieval depictions of the mouth of hell; for example, art by Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch, among others. The entrance to hell was often depicted as a monster's literal mouth, with the flames and smoke characteristic of Hades belching out. If one believes not only in the literal existence of hell, but also the literal existence of dragons as Satanic, the association is quite logical.
Komodo dragons have long, forked tongues that they use to help smell and taste.
Komodo dragons have long, forked tongues that they use to help smell and taste.
Credit: Sergey Uryadnikov / Shutterstock
Medieval theology aside, few people today believe in the literal existence of dragons in the way they may believe in the existence of Bigfoot or the Loch Ness monster, for example. The dragon (or at least the dragon version most familiar to Westerners) is simply too big and too fantastic to take seriously or literally. In the modern age of satellite imagery and smart phone photos and videos, it's simply implausible that any giant, winged fire-breathers inhabit Earth's lands or skies unseen.

However, only a few centuries ago rumors of dragons seemed to have been confirmed by eyewitness accounts from sailors returning from Indonesia who reported encountering dragons — Komodo dragons, a type of monitor lizard — which can be aggressive, deadly, and reach 10 feet in length. (In a possible parallel to dragons, it was previously believed that the bite of a Komodo dragon was especially deadly because of toxic bacteria in its mouth, though that myth was debunked in 2013 by a team of researchers from the University of Queensland who discovered that the Komodo dragon's mouths are no dirtier than those of other carnivores.) Western scientists only verified the existence of the Komodo dragon around 1910, but rumors and stories of these fearsome beasts circulated long before that.

Dragons, in one form or another, have been around for millennia. Through epic fantasy fiction by J.R.R. Tolkien and others, dragons have continued to spark our collective imagination and — unlike the dinosaurs that helped inspire stories about them — show no sign of dying out.
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quarta-feira, 26 de abril de 2017

Dinosaurs and Dragons: The Real Story

Untangling the Dragon Myth, from Prehistory to the Modern Era 

In the 10,000 or so years since human beings became civilized, virtually every culture in the world has referenced supernatural monsters in its folk tales--and some of these monsters take the form of scaly, winged, fire-breathing reptiles. "Dragons," as they're known in the west, are usually depicted as huge, dangerous, and fiercely antisocial, and they almost always wind up being killed by the proverbial "knight in shining armor" at the end of a back-breaking quest.


Before we explore the link between dragons and dinosaurs, it's important to establish exactly what a dragon is. The word "dragon" comes from the Greek "dracon," which means "serpent" or "water-snake"--and, in fact, the earliest mythological dragons resemble snakes more than they do dinosaurs or pterosaurs. It's also important to know that dragons aren't unique to the western tradition; these monsters feature heavily in Asian mythology, where they go by the Chinese name "long."

What Inspired the Dragon Myth?

Identifying the precise source of the dragon myth for any particular culture is a near-impossible task; after all, we weren't around 5,000 years ago to eavesdrop on conversations or listen to folk tales! (See also 10 Mythical Beasts Inspired by Prehistoric Animals.) That said, though, there are three likely possibilities:
Dragons were mixed-and-matched from the most frightening predators of the day.
Until only a few hundred years ago, human life was nasty, brutish and short, and many people met their end at the teeth (and claws) of vicious wildlife. Since the details of dragon anatomy vary from culture to culture, it may be that these monsters were assembled piecemeal from familiar, fearsome predators: for example, the head of a crocodile, the scales of a snake, the pelt of a tiger and the wings of an eagle.

Dragons were inspired by the discovery of giant fossils. Ancient civilizations could easily have stumbled across the bones of long-extinct dinosaurs, or the mammalian megafauna of the Cenozoic Era. Just like modern paleontologists, these accidental fossil-hunters may have been inspired to visually reconstruct "dragons" by piecing together bleached skulls and backbones. As with the above theory, this would explain why so many dragons are "chimeras" that seem to have been assembled from the body parts of various animals.
Dragons were based on recently extinct mammals and reptiles. This is the shakiest, but the most romantic, of all dragon theories. If the very earliest humans had an oral tradition, they may have passed down accounts of creatures that went extinct 10,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age. The dragon legend could have been inspired by dozens of creatures, ranging from the Giant Sloth to the Saber-Tooth Tiger to (in Australia) the giant monitor lizard Megalania, which at 25 feet long and two tons certainly attained dragon-like sizes!

Dragons, Dinosaurs and Christian Apologists

The above are the three likeliest explanations for the dragon myth. Now we come to the unlikeliest, but also the most popular (at least in the U.S.): the insistence by Christian fundamentalists that dragons actually *were* dinosaurs, since dinosaurs were created, along with all other living creatures, only about 6,000 years ago.

It's hard to categorically refute an argument based on such an outlandish claim. If, for example, a scientist says that carbon dating proves Tyrannosaurus Rex roamed the earth 65 million years ago, a fundamentalist might counter that modern science was created by Satan as a way to deceive unbelievers. By the same token, if you point out that Noah's Ark was too small to accommodate even a small fraction of known dinosaurs, a clever apologist will insist that Noah took along dinosaur eggs, not real, live dinosaurs!

Amusingly, some creationists have tried to meet modern scientists on their own terms, with an account of how dinosaurs (that is, dragons) breathed fire.
According to this story, dinosaurs belched the methane gas produced by their capacious digestive systems, then ignited it by gnashing their teeth! To support this argument, fundamentalists cite the well-known example of the bombardier beetle, which somehow evolved the ability to squirt a noxious, boiling, irritating chemical out of its rear end. (Rest assured that there isn't even a shred of evidence that dinosaurs breathed fire, and besides, this stunt would have instantly killed any Tarbosaurus that even attempted it.)

Dinosaurs and Dragons in the Modern Era

There aren't many (let's be honest, *any*) paleontologists who believe that the dragon legend was invented by ancient human beings who glimpsed a living, breathing dinosaur and passed the story down through countless generations. However, that hasn't prevented scientists from having a little fun with the dragon myth, which explains recent dinosaur names like Dracorex and Dracopelta and (further east) Dilong and Guanlong, which incorporate the "long" root corresponding to the Chinese word for "dragon." Dragons may never have existed, but they can still be resurrected, at least partway, in dinosaur form!