Mount Etna is one of the world’s most active volcanoes.Credit: Sandro Santioli/Focus/eyevine
Smoke filled the cabin as the Boeing 747 plunged towards
snow-covered mountains in southern Alaska. All four engines had shut
down, and it took the pilots eight long minutes to regain control of the
aircraft. No one on board was hurt — but they had a very close call
with an erupting volcano. The jet had flown through an ash cloud.
Incidents such as this near miss from 1989 show why geologists have long sought to forecast volcanic eruptions: to protect people on the ground and in the air. Now scientists are one step closer to this goal.
Maurizio
Ripepe, a geophysicist at the University of Florence and his colleagues
have created the world’s first automated volcano early-warning system,
which alerts authorities near Mount Etna in Sicily about one hour before
an eruption. The team described the system last month1 in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth.
The
approach relies on the fact that volcanoes are noisy. Their rumblings
and explosions can sound like a jet engine or even a high-pitched
whistle, but they also produce low-frequency infrasound waves that
people cannot hear. Unlike seismic waves, infrasound waves can travel
for thousands of miles, allowing scientists to spot volcanic eruptions
from afar. When Krakatoa erupted in Indonesia in 1883, its infrasound
signal travelled around the globe twice.
Bubble and squeak
With
that in mind, Ripepe and his colleagues turned to Mount Etna, Europe’s
largest active volcano. At first, they wanted to create a simple system
that could detect an eruption using data from an existing array of
infrasound sensors, and automatically alert authorities. But their
ambitions grew when they discovered that the volcano often produces
infrasound waves before it erupts, making prediction possible.
Although
the finding was a surprise, the scientists say that it makes sense
given that Mount Etna is an ‘open-vent’ volcano with exposed magma. As
gas rises out of that magma before an eruption, it causes air in the
volcano’s crater to slosh back and forth — creating sound waves like
those in a woodwind instrument. And just as the sound of a musical
instrument depends on its shape, the geometry of a volcano’s crater also
affects the sounds it can produce.
The team created its
early-warning system in early 2010 and analysed its performance during
59 eruptions over the next eight years. The system — an algorithm that
analyses infrasound signals from the sensor array — successfully
predicted 57 of those events and sent messages to the scientists about
one hour before an eruption took place. The extended test run was so
successful that in 2015, the scientists programmed the system to send
automatic e-mail and text-message alerts to the Italian Civil Protection
Department in Rome and the Sicilian city of Catania.
An automated
alert system can broadcast warnings faster than predictions that
require experts to vet information beforehand, says John Lyons, a
geophysicist at the Alaska Volcano Observatory. And time is of the
essence for communities near volcanoes, or passengers in a jetliner that
can fly faster than 800 kilometres per hour. “You’re covering a lot of
ground really fast, so if there is an ash cloud that has suddenly popped
up, then the pilots need to know that information as soon as possible,”
he says. “Every minute counts.”
Worldwide warnings
Although
Lyons worries about the potential for false alarms, he says that the
system is a pivotal step forward — not only for Etna, but perhaps for
similar volcanoes around the globe.
These could include Kilauea, an open-vent volcano on Hawaii’s Big Island whose months-long eruption this summer
destroyed whole neighbourhoods, says David Fee, a geophysicist at the
Alaska Volcano Observatory. But Fee, who has studied Kilauea, says that
it differs from Etna in some key ways. Eruptions at Kilauea can
originate from the volcano’s summit and an area on its flank called the
East Rift Zone. Etna, whose internal plumbing is far simpler, only
erupts from its summit.
Because of this, Lyons says that Mount
Pavlof in Alaska, one of the United States’s most active volcanoes,
could be a better test for an early-warning system. Pavlof has a similar
structure to that of Etna and has shown a similar increase in
infrasound activity before the most energetic phase of its eruptions.
Its frequent activity could also give researchers a large set of
observations with which to tune their algorithm for predicting
eruptions.
Ripepe and his colleagues are beginning to test their
early-warning approach in Iceland. Working with the Icelandic
Meteorological Office in Reykjavik, the scientists have installed five
sensor arrays across the island to monitor infrasound waves from
multiple volcanoes. Among them is the infamous Eyjafjallajökull, whose
last eruption, in 2010, shut down air traffic across northwestern Europe
for weeks.
Nature563, 456-457 (2018)
doi: 10.1038/d41586-018-07420-y
segunda-feira, 22 de outubro de 2018
Volcano Facts and Types of Volcanoes
By Mary Bagley, Live Science Contributor |
Close view of Stromboli Volcano erupting incandescent molten lava framgents.
Credit: B. Chouet/USGS.
A volcano on Earth is a vent or fissure in the planet's crust through
which lava, ash, rock and gases erupt. A volcano is also a mountain
formed by the accumulation of these eruptive products.
Volcanoes have existed for a long time on Earth, likely causing disasters such as the Permian mass extinction
about 250 million years ago, the greatest mass extinction in Earth's
history, according to a 2015 paper. Volcanoes can and have existed on
other worlds as well: although volcanoes on the moon and Mars have long been dormant, volcanoes are still very active on Jupiter's moon Io.
Researchers are currently striving to find ways to predict when
volcanic eruptions might happen on Earth by analyzing clues such as crystals and gases linked with volcanoes.
Let's take a look at how volcanoes form on Earth:
Earth's crust is 3 to 37 miles (5 to 60 kilometers) thick, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. It is broken up into seven major and 152 smaller pieces called tectonic plates, according to a 2016 paper
by Christopher Harrison at the University of Miami. These plates float
on a layer of magma — semi-liquid rock and dissolved gases. At the
boundaries of these plates — where they move past, are pushed under, or
move away from each other — magma, which is lighter than the surrounding
solid rock, is often able to force its way up through cracks and
fissures. Magma can explode from the vent, or it can flow out of the
volcano like an overflowing cup. Magma that has erupted is called lava. [Related: 50 Amazing Volcano Facts]
Principal types of volcanoes
Cinder cone volcanoes (also called scoria cones) are the most common type of volcano,
according to San Diego State University, and are the symmetrical
cone-shaped volcanoes we typically think of. They may occur as single
volcanoes or as secondary volcanoes known as "parasitic cones" on the
sides of stratovolcanoes or shield volcanoes. Airborne fragments of
lava, called tephra, are ejected from a single vent. The lava cools
rapidly and fall as cinders
that build up around the vent, forming a crater at the summit,
according to the U.S. Geological Survey. Cinder cone volcanoes are
fairly small, generally only about 300 feet (91 meters) tall and not
rising more than 1,200 feet (366 meters). They can build up over short
periods of a few months or years.
Stratovolcanoes are also called composite volcanoes
because they are built of layers of alternating lava flow, ash and
blocks of unmelted stone, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. They
are larger than cinder cones, rising up to 8,000 feet (2,438 meters).
Stratovolcanoes result from a conduit system of vents leading from a
magma reservoir beneath the surface. When dormant, they typically have
steep concave sides that sweep together at the top around a relatively
small crater.
Stratovolcanoes can erupt with great violence.
Pressure builds in the magma chamber as gases, under immense heat and
pressure, are dissolved in the liquid rock. When the magma reaches the
conduits the pressure is released and the gases explode, like soda
spewing out of a soda can that you shook up and opened suddenly,
according to San Diego State University. Because they form in a system
of underground conduits, stratovolcanoes may blow out the sides of the
cone as well as the summit crater.
Stratovolcanoes are considered the most violent. Mount St. Helens,
in Washington state, is a stratovolcano that erupted on May 18, 1980.
Approximately 230 square miles (596 square kilometers) of forest was
completely obliterated and 57 people were killed. Over the course of the
day, winds blew 520 million tons of ash eastward across the United
States and caused complete darkness in Spokane, Washington, 250 miles
(402 kilometers) from the volcano, according to the U.S. Geological
Survey.
Shield volcanoes
are huge, gently sloping volcanoes built of very thin lava spreading
out in all directions from a central vent. They have wide bases several
miles in diameter with steeper middle slopes and a flatter summit. The
gentle convex slopes give them an outline like a medieval knight’s shield.
Eruptions of these volcanoes are not generally explosive, but are more
like liquid overflowing around the edges of a container. The world's
largest volcano, Mauna Loa in Hawaii,
is a shield volcano, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. Mauna Loa
is about 55,770 feet (17,000 meters) from its base beneath the ocean to
the summit, which is 13,681 feet (4,170 meters) above sea level. It is
also one of the Earth's most active volcanoes and is carefully
monitored. The most recent eruption was in 1984.
Besides well-known symmetrical volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan
and Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, volcanic activity is responsible for
several other distinctive landforms.
Calderas: A caldera is a bowl-shaped depression formed when a volcano collapses into the void left when its magma chamber is emptied. There are three types,
according to San Diego State University. The first type is a crater
lake caldera. This is the result of a stratovolcano collapsing into its
magma chamber during a violent eruption. Basaltic calderas have a
concentric ring pattern resulting from a series of gradual collapses
rather than a single event. They are often found at the summit of shield
volcanoes such as the craters at the tops of Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
Resurgent calderas are the largest volcanic structures on Earth. They
are the result of catastrophic eruptions that dwarf any eruptions ever
recorded by human beings. Yellowstone caldera, sometimes called a "super
volcano," is one example.
Volcanic plugs: When magma solidifies in the fissure of a volcano the hard dense rock may form a "neck"
that remains when softer surrounding rock has been eroded away,
according to the U.S. Geological Survey. This can result in dramatic
landmarks such as Ship Rock in New Mexico, and Devil's Tower in Wyoming.
Tuff cones: also known as maars, tuff cones are
shallow, flat-floored craters that scientists think formed as a result
of a violent expansion of magmatic gas or steam, according to the U.S.
Geological Survey. Maars range in size from 200 to 6,500 feet (60 to
1,980 meters) across and from 30 to 650 feet (9 to 198 meters) deep, and
most are commonly filled with water to form natural lakes. Maars occur
geologically young volcanic regions of the world such as the western
United States and the Eifel region of Germany.
Lava plateaus: Shield volcanoes may erupt along lines
of fissures rather than a central vent spilling liquid lava in
successive layers. Over time as these layers form broad plateaus
such as the Columbia Plateau, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica.
These plateaus are often cut by deep canyons that expose the layers of
rock.
A fissure vent opened on Hawaii's Kilauea volcano.
Credit: HVO/USGS
Volcanoes in history
A.D. 79: One of the most famous volcanoes is Mount Vesuvius, which sits along the Bay of Naples in southern Italy. It has erupted dozens of times
in the past 2,000 years, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. The
A.D. 79 eruption, which buried Pompeii, made Vesuvius famous, but
another eruption in 1631 killed about 3,000 people.
1783: The eruption of Mount Skaptar in Iceland
devastated farming and fishing, causing a famine that killed a quarter
of the country's people, according to Oregon State University.
1815: Whirlwinds and tsunamis from the eruption of Mount Tambora,
on Sumbawa Island in Indonesia, killed at least 10,000 people,
according to the Encylopedia Britannica. The volcano sent a cloud ejecta
into the atmosphere that was more than four times the amount ejected by
Mount Pinatubo in 1991, leading to the "Year Without a Summer" of 1816 in Europe and North America, according to a 2016 paper in Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change.
1883: Another Indonesian volcano, Krakatoa,
erupted in an explosion heard 3,000 miles away. Seventy-pound boulders
landed on islands 50 miles away, and a 130-foot tsunami devastated
hundreds of villages, including Java and Sumatra, according to San Diego
State University. About 36,000 people died. Dust high in the atmosphere
caused the moon to appear blue, and sometimes green, for two years, according to NASA.
1902: Mount Pelée, on the island of Martinique, smothered the town of Saint-Pierre in deadly gas and hot ash, killing 29,933, according to the Los Angeles Times.
1980: Mount St. Helens in Washington state blew 1,300
feet off its top, killing 57 people and causing a midday darkness in
towns 85 miles away.
Pinatubo's cloud of sulfuric acid, some 20 million tons of it, climbed
to more than 12 miles in the stratosphere. Over the next several weeks,
the cloud encircled the equator and spread to the poles, covering the
entire planet. The particles reflected sunlight and cooled the Earth by
nearly a full degree Fahrenheit.
Other significant U.S. volcanoes
Lassen Peak, California:
Erupted between 1914 and 1917, causing no deaths, according to the
National Park Service. Lassen is considered one of the most likely in
the Cascade Range to erupt again.
Long Valley, California: The Long Valley Caldera
is a 10-by 20-mile (16-by-32 kilometer) depression in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains caused by an eruption 700,000 years ago, according to the
U.S. Geological Survey. A tremendous explosion spit out molten rock from
4 miles under the surface; afterward, the whole mess settled more than a
mile down into the depression where the magma had been.
Magma still feeds hot springs in the caldera. Earthquakes in 1980
marked the beginning of new activity that has included shifts in the
position of hot springs and swarms of other small earthquakes.
Geologists say it probably indicates that magma is again rising from
below, and they suspect the area will erupt again.
Mount Shasta, California: Last known eruption was in 1786. It is believed to erupt every 600 to 800 years,
according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The mountain is significant as
the incredibly dominant visual element in the Northern California
landscape.
Kilauea and Mauna Loa, Hawaii:
Each tends to erupt every two or three years; eruptions are
non-explosive, allowing these two volcanoes to be among the most studied
active volcanoes in the world, according to the U.S. Geological Survey
and the University of Hawaii.
Additional reporting by Charles Q. Choi, Live Science contributor.
