Paleobotanist Scott Wing stands in wintry Wyoming badlands, where alligators swam 56 million years ago.
IRA BLOCK
A 500-million-year survey of Earth's climate reveals dire warning for humanity
Uma pesquisa de 500 milhões de anos do clima da Terra revela um aviso terrível para a humanidade
When it opens next month, the revamped fossil hall of the
Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in
Washington, D.C., will be more than a vault of dinosaur bones. It will
show how Earth's climate has shifted over the eons, driving radical
changes in life, and how, in the modern age, one form of life—humans—is,
in turn, transforming the climate.
To tell that story, Scott Wing and Brian Huber, a paleobotanist and
paleontologist, respectively, at the museum, wanted to chart swings in
Earth's average surface temperature over the past 500 million years or
so. The two researchers also thought a temperature curve could counter
climate contrarians' claim that global warming is no concern because
Earth was much hotter millions of years ago. Wing and Huber wanted to
show the reality of ancient temperature extremes—and how rapid shifts
between them have led to mass extinctions. Abrupt climate changes, Wing
says, "have catastrophic side effects that are really hard to adapt to."
But actually making the chart was unexpectedly challenging—and
triggered a major effort to reconstruct the record. Although far from
complete, the research is already showing that some ancient climates
were even more extreme than was thought.
Ancient glaciations are easy enough to trace, as are hothouse periods
when palms grew near the poles. But otherwise little is certain,
especially early in the Phanerozoic, which spans the past 541 million
years. Paleoclimate scientists study their own slices of time and use
their own specialized temperature proxies—leaf shape, say, or growth
bands in fossilized corals—which often conflict. "We don't talk to each
other all that much," says Dana Royer, a paleoclimatologist at Wesleyan
University in Middletown, Connecticut. So at a meeting last year, Wing
and Huber assembled a loose-knit collaboration, dubbed Phantastic,
dedicated to putting together a rigorous record. "Most people came away
quite inspired to do something about this," says Dan Lunt, a
paleoclimate modeler at the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom.
The value of a deep-time temperature curve extends beyond the exhibit. Similar curves exist for atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Combine the two and you can see how much warming CO2
caused in the past, says Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the
University of Arizona in Tucson. Because the latest climate models seem to forecast more warming
than earlier ones, "using paleoclimate to constrain the models is
becoming much more important," she says. "We feel we have to step up."
Fever line
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, ADAPTED BY N. DESAI/SCIENCE
However, ocean floor older than 100 million years or so is scarce, devoured by the constant churn of plate tectonics. To go deeper in time, Ethan Grossman, a geochemist at Texas A&M University in College Station, looks for marine fossils found on land—mostly teeth and extinct bivalves called brachiopods. They tend to be from the shallow, isolated seas that formed inside ancient supercontinents. To glean temperatures from those fossils, scientists have to assume those seas had a balance of oxygen isotopes similar to the ocean today.
Este "problema da água" tem décadas. Mas cientistas em Phantastic estão atacando-o com um segundo termômetro, baseado em uma nova técnica, chamada isótopos aglomerados, que mede a abundância de dois ou mais isótopos raros. Usando espectrômetros de massa sensíveis, eles analisam as cascas fósseis de moléculas de carbonato que contêm um isótopo pesado de oxigênio ligado a um carbono pesado, que se forma mais frequentemente a temperaturas mais baixas. Os resultados serão enganosos se o fóssil tiver sido exposto ao calor e à pressão durante o seu enterro, mas os pesquisadores aprenderam como identificar espécimes alterados. "Nós nos mudamos para o lugar onde podemos aplicá-lo", diz Kristin Bergmann, geobióloga do Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachusetts, em Cambridge, que está usando isótopos agregados para preparar um registro de temperatura dos últimos bilhões de anos.
In collaboration with Gregory Henkes, a geochemist at the State University of New York in Stony Brook, and others, Grossman has gone through his samples, tossing out those that show signs of alteration, and analyzed their clumped isotopes. The results match his existing oxygen-isotope measures, and they tell a startling story, he and Henkes reported last year in Earth & Planetary Science Letters. Some 450 million years ago, ocean waters averaged 35°C to 40°C, more than 20°C warmer than today. Yet marine life thrived, even diversified. "It's unsettling for the biologists, these warm temperatures we're proposing," Grossman says. "These are extreme for modern organisms."
To turn such data into a global temperature curve, researchers need to fill gaps in geography and time. One Phantastic collaborator, Christopher Scotese, a geologist at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, has come up with a simple way to spread limited data into a global picture. He uses the presence of polar ice caps to indicate whether the world had a steep temperature differential between the equator and its poles.
Other collaborators are using the sparse data to calibrate computer simulations of the ancient climate, the way weather models use satellite data as a reality check. Lunt and Paul Valdes, also at Bristol, are ground-truthing a suite of several hundred paleoclimate simulations. They've been able to extrapolate temperatures across the planet for broad stretches of the Phanerozoic.
Although Wing and Huber are pleased with the work they've seeded, they also ran out of time. The temperature curve they're presenting at the museum opening is a beta, Wing says. "It's sort of jamming together different kinds of observations, different kinds of models, different kinds of procedures, and probably different assumptions." The plan is to replace it once the Phantastic team's efforts reach maturity. But even the draft version should open eyes, Grossman says. "This kind of work gives people a sense of how easy it is to tip into a warm period. Because the world has been warm."
doi:10.1126/science.aay1323
