Smithsonian Channel - Mass Extinction: Life at the Brink



                                                                                                  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Informações sobre o filme:

Titulo:  Mass Extinction: Life at the Brink
Ano de Lançamento: 2014
Gênero: Documentário
Diretor:  Sarah Holt
Atores :  Tian Wang
Duração:  46 mins
País de Origem:  EUA
Áudio :   
Legendas : aqui
                      

Citação

It's death on an unimaginable scale, when a majority of Earth's species quickly die out. It's called "mass extinction," and it's happened at least five times before. Cataclysms, such as supervolcanoes or asteroids, are thought to cause these events, but some experts believe a man-made mass extinction could be next. Is our planet in trouble? And if so, is there anything we can do to stop the next catastrophic annihilation? Experts are traveling the world, performing groundbreaking scientific detective work to answer these very questions.

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Vertebrate Zoology

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1 = origin of chordates, 2 = evolution of first true vertebra, 3 = evolution of bony skeleton, 4 = evolution of tetrapods from sarcopterygians, 5 = evolution of amniotic egg and keratinized scales, 6 = adaptive radiation of amniotes, 7 = evolution hair and mammary glands, 8 = evolution of keratinized feathers, wings for flight, 9 = evolution of dinosaurs

Hominid Evolution: Ancestors

• hominids = human’s closest relatives
  
• are omnivores that ate meat and vegetables; had bipedal locomotion and opposable thumb
  
• remarkable increase in brain size
  

  African hominid origins By Kameraad Pjotr & Sting [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

  Human origins, one hypothesis (many scientists feel that Homo erectus gave rise to Homo sapiens By Reed DL, Smith VS, Hammond SL, Rogers AR, Clayton DH [CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

• Hominids and Humans
  
  • human features that are derived include upright posture, bipedal locomotion, larger brain, speech, reduced jawbone, shorter digestive tract
    
  • The hominid line split from the chimpanzee line less than 10 mya

    Comparison of Homo sapiens and Pan troglodytes chromosomes JWSchmidt at the English language Wikipedia [GFDL], from Wikimedia Commons

  • oldest hominid known (7 mya) = Sahelanthropus tchandensis, which was more upright and bipedal than other primates, and had reduced canines and a more flat face than other primates
    

    Sehalanthropus an early hominid By Didier Descouens (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    Sahelanthropus reconstruction By Sisyphos23 [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

  • bipedalism may have arisen because of a diminishing forest community transitioning to woodland or grassland, or because of the niche of collecting low-hanging fruit which required walking
    

    Homo sapiens migration from Africa; 1=Homo sapiens, 2=Neanderthals, 3=Early Hominids By Altaileopard SVG by Magasjukur2 [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Ardipithecus ramidus
    
    • lived about 4.4 mya, fossils found in north Africa only
      
    • brain capacity = 325 ml
      
    • likely walked upright facultatively; also walked on all 4 legs when necessary
      
    • dentition indicates omnivory
      

      Ardipithecus cranium By T. Michael Keesey (Zanclean skullUploaded by FunkMonk) [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Ardipithecus skeleton By Ori~ (Own work after File:Ardipithecus Gesamt.jpg) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Australopithecus
    
    • lived 1.5 to 4 million years ago
      
    • walked upright, knees slightly out when walking
      
    • brain capacity = 550 ml
      
    • fossils found in Africa only
      

      Australopithecus skull By Pbuergler (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Australopithecus pelvis, anterior and posterior views By Profberger (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Homo habilis
    
    • 1.6 to 2.4 million years ago; means “handy man”
      
    • used tools of stone and bones; brain capacity = 600-750 ml
      
    • had a protrusive jaw
      
    • walked more upright; fossils found in Africa only
      

      Homo habilis skull By JosŽ-Manuel Benito çlvarez (Espa–a) Ñ> Locutus Borg (Self work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Homo habilis skull reconstruction By derivative work: Sargoth (talk) Homo_habilis.JPG: Photographed by User:Lillyundfreya (Homo_habilis.JPG) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Homo ergaster
    
    • 1.6 to 1.9 million years ago
      
    • larger brain and longer legs than Homo habilis
      

      Homo ergaster skull By Luna04 [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

      Homo ergaster, an early hominid By Nariokotome_Boy.jpg: Bubblecar derivative work: H005 (Nariokotome_Boy.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Homo erectus
    
    • brain capacity = 970 ml; used tools and fire
      
    • had brow ridges; made dwellings; 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago
      
    • fossils found in Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia
      

      Homo erectus skull By Thomas Roche from San Francisco, USA (Homo Erectus) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Homo erectus skull reconstruction By Philip72 (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Homo sapiens
    
    • 1400 ml brain capacity, lacked brow ridges
      
    • 1st members were Cro magnons - Europe
      
      • oldest known fossils are 160,000 years old
        

        Cromagnon skull By LatŽnium (LatŽnium) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

        Cro magnon art By Cro-Magnon peoples (http://www.mageist.net/Images/lascaux_horse.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

    • include neanderthals (Europe)
      
      • DNA evidence indicates that neanderthals were a clade
        
      • neanderthals did not share genes with other modern Europeans
        
      • neanderthals became extinct around 30,000 years ago
        

        Neanderthal skull By J. Arthur Thomson. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

        Neanderthal reconstruction By Hermann Schaaffhausen («Ther Neanderthaler Fund». Publisher: Marcus, Bonn) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

    • 400000 years ago to present
      
    • led to present day humans
      
    • fossils found worldwide

Phylum Chordata - the chordates (includes vertebrates)

• are all bilaterally symmetrical and coelomate
  
• includes the largest land dwelling animals - plant eating dinosaurs at 40,000 kg; the largest animal ever - blue whale - 100,000 kg
  
• approx. 52,000 sp (insects include nearly 1,000,000 sp)
  
• all chordates have (at some point in life)
  
  • a notochord (internal skeleton beneath the dorsal body surface)
    
  • pharyngeal gill slits leading from the pharynx to the outside
    
  • a hollow dorsal nerve cord
    
  • a muscular post-anal tail
    
  • includes 3 subphyla:
    
    • Urochordata - the sea squirts or tunicates
      
      • are all marine; have a tadpole-like stage with a notochord; the adult is not like other chordates
        
      • are sessile filter feeders
        
      • sea squirts secrete a cellulose outer covering
        
      • tadpole larva of the urochordates may have given rise to the vertebrates
        

        Sea Squirt By Silke Baron (originally posted to Flickr as Sea Squirt) [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

        Tunicate By Nhobgood Nick Hobgood (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

    • Cephalochordata - lancelets
      
      • contains one species - Amphioxus
        
      • are fishlike but do not have eyes
        
      • are sand burrowers but can swim; they filter feed
        
      • have myotome muscles similar to fish
        
      • their adult form retains chordate characteristics
        

        Primitive Chordate By Piotr Jaworski, PioM (Piotr Jaworski, PioM) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons	Lancelet By (Hans Hillewaert) (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons
        Key: 2=notochord, 3=dorsal nerve cord, 14=mouth, 10=pharyngeal gill slits, 5=anus, 4=tail. Functions: The notochord provides support to the body. The brain and dorsal nerve cord coordinate the muscles and organs to swim and feed. The anus rids of undigestible material. The pharyngeal gill slits and gills exchange gas with the water for respiration. The tail provides propulsion for swimming..

• Craniates - Chordates With a Head
  
  • they have 2 sets of Hox genes while more primitive chordates have only 1
    
  • they have neural crest cells that form at the margin of the closing neural tube which migrate through the body and form various structures
    
  • pharyngeal clefts evolved into gill slits for gas exchange
    
  • the oldest fossils of craniates are from period of the Cambrian Explosion
    

    Neural crest cell formation in an embryo By Abitua (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

    Pharyngeal gill slits in a lancelet By Minami Himemiya (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Key: 1 primary bars (septa), 2 coelom, 3 skeletal rods, 4 secondary bars (tongue bars), 5 gill slits, 6 atrium, 7 pharynx

  • Class Myxini
    
    • hagfishes, the most primitive craniates; lack jaws and vertebrae and have a cartilaginous skull
      
    • are scavengers and feed with keratinized toothlike structures
      
    • they retain their notochord throughout life
      
    • their body is snakelike and they swim in a snakelike fashion
      

      Hagishes By Colin75 (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Hagfish By Ed Bowlby, NOAA/Olympic Coast NMS; NOAA/OAR/Office of Ocean Exploration [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

• Vertebrata - the vertebrates
  
  • are well cephalized
    
  • have kidneys unique to the animal kingdom, ventral heart, liver, endocrine organs, closed circulation, some degree of segmentation
    
  • the Dlx family of transcription factor genes underwent duplication
    
  • have stiffened fins with fin rays and efficient gills for gas exchange
    
• Class Cephalaspidomorphi
  
  • the lampreys - the most primitive vertebrates
    
  • are mostly marine, some are freshwater
    
  • lack jaws, lack paired fins, eyes are poorly developed, gill slits are externally visible
    
  • heart is 2-chambered; gills for respiration
    
  • lampreys are parasitic with a round mouth containing a rasping tongue with sharp spines for penetrating their hosts and sucking body fluids
    
  • skeleton is completely proteinaceous with a notochord that persists throughout life
    
  • have an ammocoete larva that live like lancelets
    

    Lamprey By LadyofHats [Public Domain] via Wikimedia Commons.

    Lamprey mouth By Drow male [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

• Conodonts and Vertebrate Features
  
  • now extinct, were soft-bodied vertebrates with barbed hooks used as teeth
    
  • they had bony teeth, the possible origin of bone in vertebrates
    
• Gnathostomes
  
  • are vertebrates with true jaws, possibly evolving from structures that supported the pharyngeal gill slits
    
  • ancient gnathostomes doubled their Hox genes again, to 4 sets
    
  • the brain became larger and a lateral line evolved as an “ear”- a set of neurons down the size of the body that is sensitive to vibrations in water
    
  • they evolved paired fins - pectoral and pelvic, allowing great maneuverability
    

    Acanthodes, an early Gnathostome (jawed fish) of the Permian Period, Paleozoic Era By ArthurWeasley [GFDL or CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Class Chondrichthyes
    
    • the cartilaginous fish - includes sharks, skates, and rays; are mostly marine
      
    • have jaws and paired fins; eyes are well developed; gill slits are externally visible; gills for respiration; must constantly swim to “breathe”
      
    • heart is 2 chambered; body is covered with scales (placoid); bone is only retained in a few structures such as teeth
      
    • most forms are predatory, some forms are scavengers; few are filter feeding (whale shark)
      
    • skeleton is completely cartilaginous with vertebra instead of a notochord throughout life
      
    • have acute senses: olfactory organs for smell, lateral line system for hearing, ampullae of Lorenzini for electroreception
      
    • sexual reproduction involves internal fertilization; some forms are oviparous (lay eggs); others are ovoviviparous - bear live young (yolk nourished); other forms are viviparous (maternal nourished)
      
    • intestine has unique spiral valve to maximize digestion; lack a swimbladder (oil of liver gives buoyancy)
      

      Shark Anatomy By Chris_huh (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

      Shark electroreceptors By Chris_huh (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Whale shark gill slits By Jaontiveros (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Fish heart, 1X circulation By Ahnode (Own work) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Stingray By Barry Peters` from Doylestown (Stingray CIty - 1992) [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Hammerhead Shark By national geographic [FAL], via Wikimedia Commons

• Osteichthyes
  
  • includes 3 surviving classes: ray-finned fishes, lobe-finned fishes, and lungfishes
    
  • includes most of the fish of the seas and freshwater communities
    
  • have a swimbladder for buoyancy; protected gills for respiration
    
  • skeleton is bony (but much of skeleton is still cartilage)
    
  • have jaws and paired fins; lateral line system; eyes are well developed, gills are covered by a bony plate (operculum)
    
  • heart is 2 chambered; body is covered with scales (cycloid)
    
  • most forms are predatory, but all possible niches are covered
    
  • most lay eggs; some forms are ovoviviparous - bear live young (yolk nourished); other forms are viviparous (maternal nourished)
    
  • have lateral lines for hearing, have olfactory organs for smell
    

    Bony fish anatomy (fangtooth) By Wilfredor (Own work. Image renamed from File:Fangtooth.svg) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    Fish internal anatomy By User:Uwe Gille (Own work) [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons Key: 1 liver, 2 stomach, 3 intestine, 4 heart, 5 swim bladder, 6 kidney, 7 testicle, 8 ureter, 9 efferent duct, 10 urinary bladder, 11 gills

  • Class Actinopterygii
    
    • the ray-finned fishes
      
    • includes: eels, bass, sunfish, minnows, carp, catfish, livebearers, perch, etc..., most fish on earth
      
    • some types have electroreceptors along the lateral line and can generate electric shock (electric eel)
      

      Lepomis gibbosus, sunfish By Raver, Duane (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Electric eel By Stan Shebs [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

      Guppy varieties By Melanochromis (Self made. Own work by uploader) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons	Paddlefish By Timothy Knepp [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
      	American eel By Ellen Edmonson and Hugh Chrisp (http://pond.dnr.cornell.edu/nyfish/fish.html) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Sarcopterygii - the lobe-finned fishes - 3 classes:
    
    • class Actinistia - coelacanths - large marine lobe-finned fish
      
    • class Dipnoi - the lungfish, which can gulp air into lungs and breathe air; can also estivate during hot dry weather and wait for rain
      
    • the third class is the tetrapods
      

      Latimeria, the Coelacanth By Alberto Fernandez Fernandez (Own work) [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      Lungfish Tannin at the English language Wikipedia [GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

• Tetrapods
  
  • originated over 360 million years ago, fins evolving into legs and feet
    
  • adult living tetrapods have no pharyngeal gill slits
    
  • tetrapods evolved from some sarcopterygiian that inhabited shallows
    
  • Class Amphibia - the amphibians
    
    • includes Anura (frogs, toads), Urodele (salamanders, newts), and Apodans (caecilians)
      
    • are freshwater and terrestrial forms
      
    • have lungs for respiration; are ectothermic; 3 chambered heart; skeleton is bony
      
    • tongue is used to catch prey; most forms are predatory
      
    • lay aquatic eggs, have a common larval form (tadpole); metamorphosis produces the adult
      
    • have forelegs and hindlegs for locomotion (tetrapods)
      
    • smooth skin covers body (except caecilians)
      
    • have crude ears for hearing, well developed eyes for sight
      
    • many forms hibernate over winter; some estivate over summer
      
    • reproduction is sexual with external fertilization and external development
      

      Frog By Harmen Piekema via GNU via Wikimedia Commons

      Salamander By Brian Gratwicke [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Caecilian By Franco Andreone via [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Unported] via Wikimedia Commons

      Amphibian metamorphosis By Meyers Konversations-Lexikon [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Amphibian heart By Biodidac: Frog heart

      Amphibian circulation - 2 atria and 1 ventricle By Azimski [Public Domain]

• Amniotes
  
  • amniotes evolved the amniotic or shelled egg, an adaptation for eggs on land
    
  • the amniotic egg contains an amnion to bathe and protect the embryo, along with other extraembryonic membranes for gas exchange, waste storage, and nutrient transfer
    
  • the skin became more impermeable to water and the ribs became more important to ventilation
    

    The shelled (amniotic, cleidoic) egg By Benutzer:Horst Frank; SVG version by cs:User:-xfi-; correction of the orientation: Domsau2 [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

    1. Eggshell, 2. Outer membrane, 3. Inner membrane, 4. Chalaza, 5. Exterior albumen (outer thin albumen), 6. Middle albumen (inner thick albumen), 7. Vitelline membrane, 8. Nucleus of pander, 9. Germinal disk (blastoderm), 10. Yellow yolk, 11. White yolk, 12. Internal albumen, 13. Chalaza, 14. Air cell, 15. Cuticula

• Class Reptilia
  
  • a clade that contains lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, and birds; also extinct dinosaurs
    
  • are freshwater, terrestrial, and marine forms; most forms are predatory
    
  • have lungs for respiration; are ectothermic; 3 chambered heart (crocodilians have 4 chambered heart)
    
  • fertilization is usually internal; eggs are terrestrial amniotic eggs
    
  • scales cover the body, made of keratin
    
  • possess ears for hearing, eyes for sight, tongue for taste or smell (snakes)
    
  • many forms hibernate over winter
    

    Snake Anatomy By User:Uwe Gille (Own work) [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons Key: 1 esophagus, 2 trachea, 3 tracheal lungs, 4 rudimentary left lung, 5 right lung, 6 heart, 7 liver, 8 stomach, 9 air sac, 10 gallbladder, 11 Pancreas, 12 spleen, 13 intestine, 14 testicles, 15 kidneys.

  • Evolution:
    
    • original reptiles forms were parareptiles with large dermal plates, stocky quadrupeds - now extinct
      
    • next were diapsids with a pair of holes on each side of the skull behind the eye
      
      • lepidosaurs includes lizards, snakes, and tuataras
        
      • archosaurs includes the crocodilians, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs
        

        Parareptile skulls By Johannes Muller, Linda A. Tsuji [CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

        Postosuchus, an early archosaur By Dallas Krentzel [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • tuatara - lizard-like reptiles of New Zealand region
    
  • squamata - the lizards (most widespread reptiles) and snakes
    
    • lizards are the most diverse reptiles
      
    • snakes evolved from lizards resembling the Komodo dragon
      

      Tuatara By Knutschie [Public Domain] via Wikimedia Commons.

      Collared lizard I, Daniel Schwen [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Emerald boa By Photo by Derek Ramsey (Ram-Man) (Own work) [GFDL 1.2 or CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      Cobra in the yard! By Prashanthns (Own work) [GFDL 1.2, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Chelonia - turtles, terrapins, and tortoises
    
    • the most distinctive reptiles
      
    • the origin of the shell is still a mystery
      
    • debate rages over their placement - some feel they are archosaurs or lepidosaurs,while others think the shell originated in parareptiles
      

      Anapside skull, the type of skull present in the Chelonia By Preto(m) (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Turtle shell structure By Lycaon [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Key: a- Nuchal, b- Marginal, c- Central, d- Costal, e- Supracaudal

      Tortoise By Aaron Logan [Creative Commons Attribution 1.0 Generic] via Wikimedia Commons

      Florida softshell turtle By Johnskate17 (Johnskate17, cropped by User:Vmenkov) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Alligator Snapping Turtle By Norbert Nagel, Mörfelden-Walldorf, Germany (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Box turtle - able to raise the lower shell and close up By Doug Letterman (originally posted to Flickr as In go the legs) [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Crocodilia - crocodiles, alligators, caimans, gavials
    
    • the largest living reptiles, kin to the now-extinct dinosaurs
      
    • (croc 4th mandibular tooth fits into groove in upper jaw-visible with mouth closed)
      

      Alligator By Eistreter (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

      Crocodile By Donald Macauley from Carshalton, Surrey, UK (Crocodile Uploaded by Amada44) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

• The Birds - Class Aves
  
  • are archosaurs, with amniotic eggs, scales, and feathers
    
  • flight causes nearly all aspects of bird structure to be oriented to weight reduction
    
    • females have only one ovary, teeth are lacking
      
    • some bones are air-filled
      
    • feathers are hollow and air-filled
      

      Bird external anatomy By ZooFari [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Bird skeleton By Squelette_oiseau.JPG: BIODIDAC derivative work: mario modesto (Squelette_oiseau.JPG) [CC-BY-2.5, GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Key: 1. Skull, 2. Cervical vertebrae, 3. Furcula, 4. Coracoid, 5. Uncinate process, 6. Keel, 7. Patella, 8. Tarsometatarsus, 9. Digits, 10. Tibiotarsus (10 and 11), 11. Tibiotarsus (10 and 11), 12. Femur, 13. Ischium (innominate bone), 14. Pubi (innominate bone), 15. Illium (innominate bone), 16. Caudal vertebrae, 17. Pygostyle, 18. Synsacrum, 19. Scapula, 20. Lumbar vertebrae, 21. Humerus, 22. Ulna, 23. Radius, 24. Carpus, 25. Metacarpus, 26. Digits, 27. Alula.

  • flight allows exploitation of habitat, food, and reproductive strategies
    
  • are freshwater (surface), terrestrial, and marine (surface)
    
  • have lungs for respiration; are endothermic; 4 chambered heart and efficient circulation
    
  • are predatory, parasitic, scavenger, and herbivorous forms
    
  • lay terrestrial amniotic eggs
    
  • feathers made of keratin cover body
    
  • have well developed ears, eyes, and tongue
    
  • do not hibernate, but many forms migrate for reproduction
    
  • probably evolved from theropods, possibly as small ground-dwelling dinosaurs either jumped and gained air-time while feeding or glided from tree branches
    
  • Archaeopteryx is a famous transitional form between theropods and modern birds
    

    Archaeopteryx By H. Raab (User:Vesta) (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

    Skull of reptile → dinosaur/bird lineage (diapsid) By derivative work: Gagea (talk) Skull_diapsida_1.png: Preto(m) (Skull_diapsida_1.png) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • includes: loons, grebes, albatrosses, petrels, pelicans, waterfowl, vultures, hawks, falcons, eagles, owls, turkey, grouse, herons, cranes, shorebirds, pigeons, doves, cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds, parrots, kingfishers, woodpeckers, perching birds, etc...
    

    Goshawk By Mailseth [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

    Albatross By JJ Harrison (http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    Woodpecker By Wolfgang Wander (http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/41280575) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    Great blue heron By Christian Mehlführer, User:Chmehl (Own work) [CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

    Barn owl Kev747 at en.wikipedia [GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

    Summer tanager By Julian Londono from Manizales, Colombia [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    Ruby-throated hummingbird By Dan Pancamo (Flickr: Hummer Sunday) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

• Mammals - Class Mammalia
  
  • are freshwater, marine, and terrestrial forms
    
  • derived features are mammary glands, hair made of keratin
    

    Cat Internal Anatomy By Surachit [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

    Skull of reptile → mammal lineage (synapsid) By derivative work: Gagea (talk) Skull_synapsida_1.png: Preto(m) (Skull_synapsida_1.png) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • have lungs for respiration; are endothermic; have an insulating layer of fat; 4 chambered heart
    
  • have larger brains that other vertebrates; have long parental care period caring for young
    
  • are predatory, scavenger, and herbivorous forms; dentition shows a variety of different teeth for different functions
    
  • mammals belong to the synapsids, a group of amniotes with a fenestra behind each eye socket
    
  • the first mammals originated in the Triassic
    

    Lycosuchus, a dinosaur of the lineage that led to the first mammals By Philip72 (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

    Megazostrodon, an early mammal of the Triassic By Nordelch (Megazostrodon Natural History Museum) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

  • only platypus and echidna lay eggs, rest of group gives birth to undeveloped young that are nourished by mammary glands
    
  • hair covers body, made of keratin; have well developed ears, eyes, and tongue
    
  • some forms hibernate
    
  • includes the largest animals (the whales), and the largest meat eaters alive today (polar bears)
    
  • there are 3 groups:
    
    • monotremes - the platypuses and echidnas, the mammals that lay eggs
      
      • females have mammary glands to nurse the young after the young hatch
        
    • marsupials - the opossums, koalas, kangaroos, etc.
      
      • do not lay eggs, give birth to tiny underdeveloped young that drop into a pouch that contains mammary glands and finish development there
        
      • except for the opossum, they are restricted to Australia, which lacked Eutherian mammals
        
    • eutherians - the placental mammals; young are born more developed than in the marsupials; gestation occurs in a well-developed uterus
      

      Mammal species by percentage By Aranae (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

  • Mammalian orders:
    
    • monotremata - duck-billed platypus and echidna
      

      Duck-billed platypus By Stefan Kraft [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Echidna By KeresH [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license], via Wikimedia Commons

    • marsupiala - marsupials (kangaroo, koala, etc.)
      

      Koala By Diliff (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

      Opossum By Cody Pope (Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope) [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

    • insectivora - moles, shrews
      

      Eastern Mole By Kenneth Catania, Vanderbilt University [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Shrew See page for author [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      dermoptera - flying lemurs Flying lemur By Lip Kee Yap [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      chiroptera - bats Fruit bat By Hubris.nemesis (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    • primates - lemurs, monkeys, apes, humans
      

      Lemur, a prosimian By sannse (sannse) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Chimpanzee By By Aaron Logan [CC-BY-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

    • edentata - sloths, anteaters, armadillos
      

      Sloth By Julia Kerschbaum [GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

      Anteater by Dirk van der Made via [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

      9-banded armadillo By http://www.birdphotos.com Tomfriedel (Own work) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    • lagomorpha - rabbits, hares, pikas
      

      Snowshoe hare By Dave Bezaire & Susi Havens-Bezaire (Flickr: Don't Bug Me-I'm Eating the Rocks!) [CC-BY-SA-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Pika By sevenstar via [Public Domain] via Wikimedia Commons.

    • rodentia - mice, rats, voles, beavers, porcupines, guinea pigs, hamsters, jerboas, squirrels, gophers
      

      Porcupine By J. Glover (self-made with a Nikon D70) [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      Gopher By JTchagbele (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

    • cetacea - whales, dolphins, porpoises
      

      Humpback Whale By Fritz Geller-Grimm (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-2.5 or CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      Baluga whale By Diliff [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

    • carnivora - dogs, cats, hyenas, bears, wolves, raccoons, pandas, weasels, otters, badgers, skunks, jackals, civets, mongooses
      

      Giant Panda By Jeff Kubina (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

      Mongoose By J.M.Garg (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], via Wikimedia Commons

      pinnipedia - seals, sea lions, walruses Walrus By Pfinge at fr.wikipedia [Public domain], from Wikimedia Commons

      proboscidea - elephants African elephant By Eugenia & Julian via [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Unported ] via Wikimedia Commons

    • perrissodactyla - odd-toed ungulates, horses, zebras, donkeys, tapirs, rhinoceri
      

      Zebra By André Karwath aka Aka (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      Tapir By Piotr291092 (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons

    • artiodactyla - even-toad ungulates, pigs, hippopotami, camels, deer, giraffes, buffaloes, cattle, gazelles, goats, llamas, antelopes, sheep
      

      Hippopotamus By Stig Nygaard from Copenhagen, Denmark (Hippo and crocodile) [CC-BY-2.0], via Wikimedia Commons

      Giraffe By Luca Galuzzi (Lucag) [CC-BY-SA-2.5], via Wikimedia Commons

      
      

Primate and the Evolution of Homo Sapiens

• primates - flat faces, forward pointing eyes, reduced snout, binocular vision, flexible fingers and toes, large cerebrum
  
• primate groups
  
  • prosimians = lemurs, lorises, aye-ayes (older)
    
  • anthropoids = human-like primates (newer)
    

    Tree Shrew (potential ancestor of the primates) By Hornbill at en.wikipedia [GFDL, CC-BY-SA-3.0 or GFDL], from Wikimedia Commons

    Ring-tailed Lemurs (early primate form) By Adrian Pingstone (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

    • 2 groups: monkeys and apes
      
      • new world monkeys are arboreal, grasping prehensile tails
        
      • hominoids = great apes = gorillas, gibbons, orangutans, chimps, humans
        

        Monkey (anthropoid) By Altaileopard [Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported or GNU] via Wikimedia Commons.

        Male silverback gorilla (hominoid) By Raul654 (Own work) [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons